Properties of alkanes
(a) alkanes as saturated hydrocarbons containing single C–C and C–H bonds as σ-bonds (overlap of orbitals directly between the bonding atoms); free rotation of the σ-bond
(b) explanation of the tetrahedral shape and bond angle around each carbon atom in alkanes in terms of electron pair repulsion
(c) explanation of the variations in boiling points of alkanes with different carbon-chain length and branching, in terms of induced dipole–dipole interactions (London forces)
Reactions of alkanes
(d) the low reactivity of alkanes with many reagents in terms of the high bond enthalpy and very low polarity of the σ-bonds present
(e) complete combustion of alkanes, as used in fuels, and the incomplete combustion of alkane fuels in a limited supply of oxygen with the resulting potential dangers from CO
(f) the reaction of alkanes with chlorine and bromine by radical substitution using ultraviolet radiation, including a mechanism involving homolytic fission and radical reactions in terms of initiation, propagation and termination
(g) the limitations of radical substitution in synthesis by the formation of a mixture of organic products, in terms of further substitution and
reactions at different positions in a carbon chain.